Small-Pitch Wire Grid Polarizer

ABSTRACT

The wire grid polarizer (WGP) comprises an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures located over a surface of a transparent substrate and a plurality of spaces, including a space between adjacent nanostructures. Each of the nanostructures can include (1) a plurality of parallel, elongated wires located on the substrate, including an inner-pair located between an outer-pair; (2) lateral-gaps between each wire of the outer-pair and an adjacent wire of the inner-pair; (3) and a center-gap between the two wires of the inner-pair.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/209,131, filed on Aug. 24, 2015, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present application is related generally to wire grid polarizers.

BACKGROUND

Wire grid polarizers (WGPs or WGP for singular) may be used for polarizing light, by allowing one polarization of light to pass through the polarizer, and reflecting or absorbing an opposite polarization of light. For simplicity, the polarization that primarily passes through the polarizer will be hereafter referred to as p-polarized light and the polarization that is primarily reflected or absorbed will be hereafter referred to as s-polarized light. Goals of WGP design include increasing transmission of p-polarized light, decreasing transmission of s-polarized light, and increasing reflection or absorption of s-polarized light. Different applications have different requirements.

The goals of increasing transmission of p-polarized light and decreasing transmission of s-polarized light are common to most or all applications. There can be a trade-off between these two. In other words, certain designs that may increase transmission of p-polarized light may also undesirably increase transmission of s-polarized light. Other designs that decrease transmission of s-polarized light may also undesirably decrease transmission of p-polarized light.

For some applications, it is desirable to reflect as much s-polarized light as possible so that both polarized light beams can be effectively utilized. It can be important in such designs to increase reflection of s-polarized light without reducing transmission of p-polarized light. Sometimes there is a trade-off in a particular design between increasing transmission of p-polarized light and increasing reflection of s-polarized light.

For other applications, absorption of s-polarized light may be preferred, such as for example if reflection of light can disrupt the image or other intended use. In a transmissive panel image projection system, reflected light may go back into the LCD imager causing image degradation, or stray light can reach the screen, degrading contrast. An ideal selectively absorptive WGP will transmit all p-polarized light and selectively absorb all s-polarized light. In reality, some s-polarized light is transmitted and some reflected and some p-polarized light is absorbed and some reflected. Sometimes there is a trade-off in a particular design between increasing transmission of p-polarized light and increasing absorption of s-polarized light.

The effectiveness of a WGP can thus be quantified by (1) high transmission of p-polarized light; (2) high contrast; and (3) depending on the design, high absorption or reflection of s-polarized light. Contrast is equal to percent of p-polarized light transmitted (Tp) divided by percent of s-polarized light transmitted (Ts): Contrast=Tp/Ts.

It can be important in WGPs for infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light to have wires with small width and pitch, such as nanometer or micrometer width and pitch, for effective polarization. Typically, a pitch of less than half of the wavelength of light to be polarized is needed for effective polarization. Smaller pitches may improve the contrast. Thus, small pitch can be an important feature of WGPs. Manufacture of WGPs with sufficiently small pitch is challenging and is a goal of research in this field.

SUMMARY

It has been recognized that it would be advantageous to provide wire grid polarizers (WGPs or WGP for singular) with small pitch and desired performance. The present invention is directed to various embodiments of, and methods of making, WGPs that satisfy these needs. Each embodiment may satisfy one, some, or all of these needs.

A method of making a WGP can include some or all of the following steps:

1. providing an array of parallel, elongated support ribs located over a transparent substrate and spaces between the support ribs, the spaces being solid-material-free; 2. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a first-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs; 3. etching the first-layer to remove horizontal segments and leaving an array of inner-pairs of parallel, elongated wires along sides of the support ribs, each wire of each inner-pair being separate from the other wire of the inner-pair; 4. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a second-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs; 5. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a third-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs; 6. etching the third-layer to remove horizontal segments and leaving an array of outer-pairs of parallel, elongated wires along sides of the support ribs, each wire of each outer-pair being spaced apart with respect to the other wire of the outer-pair, wires of each outer-pair being spaced apart with respect to wires of the inner-pair by wires of a middle-pair, the wires of the middle-pair being formed of material of the second-layer; and 7. etching the support ribs and the middle-pair to form:

a. between at least a portion of each wire of each outer-pair and at least a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair, a lateral-solid-material-free-region;

b. between at least a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair, a center-solid-material-free-region.

In one embodiment, the WGP can comprise an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures located over a surface of a transparent substrate and a plurality of spaces, including a space between adjacent nanostructures. Each of the nanostructures can include (1) a plurality of parallel, elongated wires located on the substrate, including an inner-pair located between an outer-pair; (2) lateral-gaps between each wire of the outer-pair and an adjacent wire of the inner-pair; (3) and a center-gap between the two wires of the inner-pair. The wires can be laterally oriented and spaced apart with respect to one another.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of a wire grid polarizer (WGP or WGPs for plural) 10 with nanostructures 14, each nanostructure 14 including a plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13 located on a distal-surface 12 _(d) of a base rib 12, the wires 13 including an inner-pair 13 _(i), a middle-pair 13 _(m), and an outer-pair 13 _(o), in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 2-29 illustrate methods of making WGPs, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Steps in the methods of making can be sequential through the figures, except for the following. FIG. 4 can be followed by FIG. 5 or by FIG. 22. FIG. 22 can be followed by FIG. 5. FIG. 5 can be followed by FIG. 6 or by FIG. 18. FIG. 8 can be followed by FIG. 9, FIG. 13, or FIG. 25.

FIGS. 10-17, 20-21, 23-24, and 29 show schematic cross-sectional side views of WGPs, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. The WGPs can have multiple nanostructures 14. Each of the nanostructures can include a plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13, including an inner-pair 13 _(i) located between an outer-pair 13 _(o), There can be lateral-gaps G_(L) between each wire of an inner-pair 13 _(i) and an adjacent wire of an outer-pair 13 _(o); center-gaps G_(C) between the two wires of each inner-pair 13 _(i); and spaces S between adjacent nanostructures 14.

In FIGS. 10-12, a thickness of center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) can be the same, or close to, a thickness of inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I). In FIGS. 13-17, the inner-pair 13, and the outer-pair 13 _(o) can be located over base-ribs 12. In FIGS. 20-21, a thickness Th_(i) of the inner-pair 13 _(i) can be greater than a thickness Th_(o) of the outer-pair 13 _(o). In FIGS. 23-24, a thickness Th_(i) of the inner-pair 13, can be less than a thickness Th_(o) of the outer-pair 13 _(o). In FIG. 29, the plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13 also includes a second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) which sandwich the outer-pair 13 _(o) and the inner-pair 13 _(i).

Definitions

As used herein, the term “light” means electromagnetic radiation in the x-ray, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

As used herein, the term “substrate” includes a base material, such as for example a glass wafer. The term “substrate” includes a single material, and also includes multiple materials, such as for example a glass wafer with at least one thin film.

Many materials used in optical structures absorb some light, reflect some light, and transmit some light. The following definitions are intended to distinguish between materials or structures that are primarily absorptive, primarily reflective, or primarily transparent.

1. As used herein, the term “absorptive” means substantially absorptive of light in the wavelength of interest.

a. Whether a material is “absorptive” is relative to other materials used in the polarizer. Thus, an absorptive structure will absorb substantially more than a reflective or a transparent structure.

b. Whether a material is “absorptive” is dependent on the wavelength of interest. A material can be absorptive in one wavelength range but not in another.

c. In one aspect, an absorptive structure can absorb greater than 40% and reflect less than 60% of light in the wavelength of interest (assuming the absorptive structure is an optically thick film -greater than the skin depth thickness).

d. Absorptive ribs can be used for selectively absorbing one polarization of light.

2. As used herein, the term “reflective” means substantially reflective of light in the wavelength of interest.

a. Whether a material is “reflective” is relative to other materials used in the polarizer. Thus, a reflective structure will reflect substantially more than an absorptive or a transparent structure.

b. Whether a material is “reflective” is dependent on the wavelength of interest. A material can be reflective in one wavelength range but not in another. Some wavelength ranges can effectively utilize highly reflective materials. At other wavelength ranges, especially lower wavelengths where material degradation is more likely to occur, the choice of materials may be more limited and an optical designer may need to accept materials with a lower reflectance than desired.

c. In one aspect, a reflective structure can reflect greater than 80% and absorb less than 20% of light in the wavelength of interest (assuming the reflective structure is an optically thick film—i.e. greater than the skin depth thickness).

d. Metals are often used as reflective materials.

e. Reflective wires can be used for separating one polarization of light from an opposite polarization of light.

3. As used herein, the term “transparent” means substantially transparent to light in the wavelength of interest.

a. Whether a material is “transparent” is relative to other materials used in the polarizer. Thus, a transparent structure will transmit substantially more than an absorptive or a reflective structure.

b. Whether a material is “transparent” is dependent on the wavelength of interest. A material can be transparent in one wavelength range but not in another.

c. In one aspect, a transparent structure can transmit greater than 90% and absorb less than 10% of light in the wavelength of interest.

4. As used in these definitions, the term “material” refers to the overall material of a particular structure. Thus, a structure that is “absorptive” is made of a material that as a whole is substantially absorptive, even though the material may include some reflective or transparent components. Thus for example, a rib made of a sufficient amount of absorptive material so that it substantially absorbs light is an absorptive rib even though the rib may include some reflective or transparent material embedded therein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows a schematic perspective view of a wire grid polarizer (WGP or WGPs for plural) 10, including an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures 14 located over a surface of a transparent substrate 11. Each of the nanostructures 14 can include a plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13. WGP 10 is similar to WGP 170 (FIG. 17), details of which are described below.

Structures in other figures herein are schematic cross-sectional side views. Nanostructures 14, wires 13, ribs 12 and 22, and rods 122 in these structures are also elongated, similar to the WGP 10 in FIG. 1. Drawings in the figures are not necessarily to scale.

The pitch P₁₄ of the nanostructures 14 of WGP 10, and other WGPs described herein, can be limited by available lithography tools. By forming at least two pairs 13 _(i) and 13 _(o) of spaced-apart wires 13 on each nanostructure 14, the pitch of the wires (e.g. pitch P_(i) of the inner-pair 13 _(i)) can be reduced, thus allowing polarization of smaller wavelengths of light. Smaller pitch P₁₄ can also result in improved overall WGP performance, including increased transmission of a desired polarization and increased contrast.

The term “elongated” means that a length 15 of the wires 13 is substantially greater than wire width w_(i) and w_(o) or a thickness Th of the wires 13. For example, WGPs for ultraviolet or visible light can have a wire width w_(i) and w_(o) between 5 and 50 nanometers in one aspect or between 10 and 30 nanometers in another aspect; and wire length 15 of greater than 1 millimeter in one aspect or greater than 20 centimeters in another aspect, depending on the application. Thus, elongated wires can have a length 15 that is many times (even thousands of times) larger than wire width w_(i) and w_(o) or wire thickness Th.

There are many options for wire thickness Th and wire material composition in the various WGP embodiments herein. An example of wire thickness Th is between 50 and 300 nanometers. Examples of materials of construction of the wires include tungsten and titanium oxide. These materials can be 99% pure in one aspect (e.g. the wire 13 is 99% W or TiO₂, 95% pure in another aspect, or less than 95% pure in another aspect.

Methods of Making Wire Grid Polarizers

FIGS. 2-29 illustrate methods of making WGPs, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Steps in the method can be performed in the order as described in the following paragraphs.

FIG. 2 shows providing an array of parallel, elongated support ribs 22 over a transparent substrate 11, and spaces S between the support ribs 22. The spaces S can be solid-material-free.

FIG. 3 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a first-layer L₁ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22.

FIGS. 3-4 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the first-layer L₁ to remove horizontal segments H and leaving an array of inner-pairs 13 _(i) of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. Each wire of each inner-pair 13 _(i) can be separated from the other wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i) by the intermediate support rib 22.

FIG. 5 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a second-layer L₂ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22. After FIG. 5, the next step can be that shown in FIG. 6 or FIG. 18.

FIGS. 5-6 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the second-layer L₂ to remove horizontal segments H and leaving middle-pairs 13 _(m). The middle-pairs 13 _(m) can be an array of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. The two wires of each middle-pair 13 _(m) can be separated from each other by the inner-pair 13 _(i) and by the support rib 22.

FIG. 7 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a third-layer L₃ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22.

FIGS. 7-8 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the third-layer L₃ to remove horizontal segments H and leaving outer-pairs 13 _(o). The outer-pairs 13 _(o) can be an array of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. The two wires of each outer-pair 13 _(o) can be separated from each other by the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and by the support rib 22. Wires of each outer-pair 13 _(o) can be spaced apart with respect to wires of the inner-pair 13 _(i) by wires of the middle-pair 13 _(m). After FIG. 8, the next step can be that shown in FIG. 9 or FIG. 13.

FIG. 9 shows filling the spaces S between the support ribs 22 with a solid material 91. For example, this can be done by ALD or spin-on glass. In subsequent steps, the solid material 91, the support ribs 22, and the middle-pair 13, will be etched together. Therefore, it may be desirable to consider etch characteristics of the solid material 91 in relation to etch characteristics of the support ribs 22 and the middle-pair 13 _(m). In one embodiment, the solid material 91 is made of the same material as the middle-pair 13 m and/or substrate 11 (e.g. SiO₂).

FIG. 10 shows (1) etching the middle-pair 13 _(m) to form lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) between a portion of each wire of each outer-pair 13 _(o) and a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i); (2) etching the support ribs 22 to form center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) between a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair 13 _(i); and (3) etching the solid material 91 to form inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) between a portion of adjacent nanostructures. The above etches can be anisotropic. The etch chemistry can be selected to preferentially etch the middle-pair 13 _(m), the support ribs 22, and the solid material 91, with minimal etching of the outer-pairs 13 _(o) and the inner-pairs 13.

FIG. 11 shows etching to remove (1) the middle-pairs 13 _(m) and forming the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(o); (2) the support ribs 22 and forming the center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(i); and (3) the solid material 91 and forming the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the outer-pairs 13 _(o). The above etches can be anisotropic. In various embodiments, one, two, or all three of the support ribs 22, the solid material 91, and the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be removed from a distal-end D to a proximal-end P of adjacent wires 13, depending on the material each is made of, and a width w_(S), w_(L), w_(C) between adjacent wires 13.

FIG. 12 shows using the outer-pair 13 _(o) and the inner-pair 13 _(i) as a mask and etching the substrate 11 to form an array of parallel, elongated rods 122, each rod located between a wire of the outer-pair 13 _(o) or a wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and the substrate 11. The rods 122 can be separated from each other by the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I).

FIG. 13 can follow FIG. 8, and shows (1) etching the middle-pair 13 _(m) to form lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) between a portion of each wire of each outer-pair 13 _(o) and a portion of an f each inner-pair 13 _(i); and (3) etching the substrate 11 between adjacent nanostructures 14 to form base-ribs 12 and inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) between adjacent base-ribs 12. One inner-pair 13 _(i) and one outer-pair 13 _(o) can be located on each base-rib 12. The above etches can be anisotropic. The etch chemistry can be selected to preferentially etch the middle-pair 13 _(m), the support ribs 22, and the substrate 11, with minimal etching of the outer-pairs 13 _(o) and the inner-pairs 13 _(i).

FIG. 14 shows (1) removing the middle-pairs 13 _(m) and forming the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(o); (2) removing the support ribs 22 and forming the center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(i); and (3) etching the substrate 11 between adjacent nanostructures 14 to form base-ribs 12 and inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) between adjacent base-ribs 12. The above etches can be anisotropic. In various embodiments, one or both of the support ribs 22 and the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be removed from a distal-end D to a proximal-end P of adjacent wires 13, depending on the material each region is made of, and a width w_(S), w_(L), w_(C) between adjacent wires 13.

FIG. 15 shows using the outer-pair 13 _(o) and the inner-pair 13 _(i) as a mask and etching the substrate 11 to form an array of parallel, elongated rods 122, each rod 122 located between a wire of the outer-pair 13 _(o) or a wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and the substrate 11. The rods 122 can be separated from each other by the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I).

As shown in FIG. 16-17, in contrast to FIGS. 13 & 15, a distance of the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), from the distal-end D to the proximal-end P (and possibly beyond the proximal-end P) of the wires 13, does not need to equal this distance of the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C). A depth of etch of the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I), can be based on materials that are etched and a width w_(S), w_(L), w_(C) (see FIGS. 10 & 15) of each region.

FIG. 18 can follow FIG. 5. FIG. 18 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a third-layer L₃ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22.

FIGS. 18-19 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the third-layer L₃ and the second-layer L₃ to remove horizontal segments H and leave outer-pairs 13 ₀ and middle-pairs 13 _(m). The outer-pairs 13 _(o) and middle-pairs 13 _(m) can each be arrays of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. The two wires of each outer-pair 13 _(o) can be separated from each other by the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and by the support rib 22. Wires of each outer-pair 13 _(o) can be spaced apart with respect to wires of the inner-pair 13 _(i) by wires of the middle-pair 13 _(m). Following FIG. 19, the method shown in FIGS. 9-12, and as described above can be followed. Alternatively, the method shown in FIGS. 20-21 can be followed, which is similar to that shown in FIGS. 13-17.

FIG. 20 shows (1) etching the middle-pair 13 _(m) to form lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) between a portion of each wire of each outer-pair 13 _(o) and a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i); (2) etching the support ribs 22 to form center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) between a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair 13 _(i); and (3) etching the substrate 11 between adjacent nanostructures 14 to form base-ribs 12 and inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) between adjacent base-ribs 12. One inner-pair 13 _(i) and one outer-pair 13 _(o) can be located on each base-rib 12. The above etches can be anisotropic. The etch chemistry can be selected to preferentially etch the middle-pair 13 _(m), the support ribs 22, and the substrate 11, with minimal etching of the outer-pairs 13 _(o) and the inner-pairs 13 _(i). This is similar to the method shown in FIG. 13.

FIG. 21 shows using the outer-pair 13, and the inner-pair 13, as a mask and etching the substrate 11 and the base-ribs 12 to form an array of parallel, elongated rods 122, each rod 122 located between a wire 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o) or a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and the substrate 11. The rods 122 can be separated from each other by the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I). This is similar to the method shown in FIG. 15.

FIG. 22 can follow FIG. 4 and shows etching E etching into the substrate 11 between inner-pairs 13 _(i) and adjacent inner-pairs 13 _(i). The etching shown in FIGS. 3-4 and 22 can be done in a single etch step. FIG. 22 can be followed by FIG. 5. After adding and etching the second-layer L₂ and the third-layer L₃, plus etching the support ribs 22, the middle-pair 13 _(m) and further etch of the substrate 11, the resulting structure can be as shown in FIGS. 23-24.

FIG. 23 can follow FIG. 8, 9. or 19 (if FIG. 4 was followed by FIG. 22), and shows (1) etching the middle-pair 13 _(m) to form lateral-solid-material-free-regions RL between a portion of each wire of each outer-pair 13 _(n) and a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i); (2) etching the support ribs 22 to form center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) between a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair 13 _(i). The above etches can be anisotropic. The etch chemistry can be selected to preferentially etch the middle-pair 13 _(m), the support ribs 22, and the substrate 11, with minimal etching of the outer-pairs 13 _(o) and the inner-pairs 13 _(i).

FIG. 24 shows (1) removing the middle-pairs 13 _(m) and forming the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) from a distal-end a to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(o); (2) removing the support ribs 22 and forming the center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) from a distal-end D_(i) to a proximal-end P_(i) of the inner-pairs 13 _(i). The above etches can be anisotropic. In various embodiments, one or both of the support ribs 22 and the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be removed from a distal-end D to a proximal-end P of adjacent wires 13, depending on the material each region is made of, and a width w_(S), w_(L), w_(C) between adjacent wires 13.

FIG. 25 can follow FIG. 8 or FIG. 19, FIG. 25 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a fourth-layer L₄ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22.

FIGS. 25-26 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the fourth-layer L₄ to remove horizontal segments H and leave second-middle-pairs 13 _(m2). The second-middle-pairs 13 _(m2) can be an array of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. The two wires 13 of each second-middle-pair 13 _(m2) can be separated from each other by the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), the outer-pair 13 _(o), and the support rib 22.

FIG. 27 shows conformal coating the substrate 11 and the support ribs 22 with a fifth-layer L₅ while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces S between the support ribs 22. FIG. 27 can follow FIG. 25 directly, if it is desired that second-middle-pairs 13 _(m2) have an L-shape, similar to middle-pairs 13 _(m) shown in FIGS. 20-21. Alternatively, FIG. 27 can follow FIG. 26.

FIGS. 27-28 show etching (e.g. an anisotropic etch) the fifth-layer L₅ to remove horizontal segments H and leaving second-outer-pairs 13 _(o2). The fourth-layer L₄ would also be etched in this step if the step shown in FIG. 23 is skipped. The second-outer-pairs 13 _(o2) can be an array of parallel, elongated wires 13 along sides of the support ribs 22. The two wires of each second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can be separated from each other by the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2), the outer-pair 13 _(o), inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and by the support rib 22. Wires of each second-outer-pair 13 _(o) can be spaced apart with respect to wires of the outer-pair 13 _(o) by wires of the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2). The steps shown in FIGS. 25-28 can be repeated as many times as desired or until the spaces S are filled. The following step can be an etch, as shown in FIG. 29, or fill with a solid material 91 as shown in FIG. 9, then etch as shown in FIGS. 10-12.

FIG. 29 shows (1) etching the middle-pair 13 _(m) to form lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) between at least a portion of each wire of each outer-pair 13 _(o) and a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i); (2) etching the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2) to form second lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L2) between at least a portion of each wire of each second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) and a portion of an adjacent wire of the outer-pair 13 _(o); (3) etching the support ribs 22 to form center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) between at least a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair 13 _(i); and (4) etching the substrate 11 between adjacent nanostructures 14 to form base-ribs 12 and inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I) between adjacent base-ribs 12. One inner-pair 13 _(i), one outer-pair 13 _(o), and one second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can located on each base-rib 12. The above etches can be anisotropic. The etch chemistry can be selected to preferentially etch the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2), the middle-pair 13 _(m), the support ribs 22, and the substrate 11, with minimal etching of the second-outer-pairs 13 _(o2), the outer-pairs 13 _(o), and the inner-pairs 13 _(i).

The etch shown in FIG. 29 can continue from the distal-end D to the proximal-end P (and possibly beyond the proximal-end P) of at least some of the wires 13. The second-outer-pair 13 _(o2), the outer-pairs 13 _(o), and the inner-pairs 13 _(i) can be used as a mask for etching the substrate 11 to form an array of parallel, elongated rods 122, each rod located between a wire of the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2), a wire of the outer-pair 13 _(o), or a wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i)and the substrate 11. The rods 122 can be separated from each other by the second lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L2), the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I). Thus, the etch described in regard to FIG. 26 can be similar to those shown in FIGS. 13-17, with the exception of the additional etch of the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2) shown in FIGS. 28-29.

In the above method, the following can be reflective: the first-layer L₁, the third-layer L₃, the fifth-layer L₅, or combinations thereof. Two or more of these layers L₁, L₃, and L₅ can be made of different materials, but each can still be reflective. In the above method, the following can be absorptive: the first-layer L₁, the third-layer L₃ the fifth-layer L₅, or combinations thereof. Two or more of these layers L₁, L₃, and L₅ can be made of different materials, but each can still be absorptive. If one layer is reflective, then it is not absorptive, and vice versa. In the above method, the following can be transparent: the second-layer L₂, the fourth-layer L₄, or combinations thereof.

Wire Grid Polarizer of FIGS. 10-12

Illustrated in FIGS. 10-12 are WGPs 100, 110, and 120. The WGPs 100, 120, and 130 can comprise an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures 14 located over a surface of a transparent substrate 11, and a plurality of spaces S, including a space S between adjacent nanostructures 14. Each of the nanostructures 14 can include a plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13 located on the substrate 11, including an inner-pair 13, located between an outer-pair 13 _(o).

Wire Grid Polarizer of FIGS. 13-17

Illustrated in FIGS. 13-17 are WGPs 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170. The WGPs 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170 can comprise an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures 14 located over a transparent substrate 11, and a plurality of spaces S, including a space S between adjacent nanostructures 14. Each of the nanostructures 14 can include an elongated base-rib 12 located over the substrate 11.

Each base rib 12 can have a distal-surface 12 _(d) located away from the substrate 11. A plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13 can be located on the distal-surface 12 _(d) of the base-rib 12, including an inner-pair 13 _(i) located between an outer-pair 13 _(o).

Similarities and Comparison of Wire Grid Polarizers of FIGS. 10-17

The wires 13 can be laterally oriented and spaced apart with respect to one another. “Laterally oriented” refers to a direction substantially perpendicular to the length 15 (see FIG. 1 of the wires 13).

Each wire can have a proximal-end P closer to the substrate 11 and a distal-end D farther from the substrate 11. A thickness Th of each wire 13 is defined as a distance from the proximal-end P to the distal-end D.

There can be a lateral-gap G_(L) between each wire 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o) and an adjacent wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i). As shown in FIGS. 10, 13, 16, and 17, part of each lateral-gap G_(L) can be a lateral-solid-material-free-region R_(L). The lateral-solid-material-free-region R_(L) can extend from the distal-end D towards the proximal-end P_(i), of a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13, adjacent to the lateral-gap G_(L), for a distance of at least 25% in one aspect, at least 50% in another aspect, at least 80% in another aspect, at least 90% in another aspect, or between 70% and 98% in another aspect, of a thickness Th_(i) of a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) adjacent to the lateral-gap G_(L). A remaining portion of each lateral-gap G_(L) can be filled with a wire 13 of the middle-pair 13 _(m).

As shown in FIGS. 11, 12, and 15, the lateral-gaps GL can be entirely solid-material-free. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 14, the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) can terminate at the proximal-end P. As shown in FIGS. 12 & 15 the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L) can extend beyond the proximal-end P into the substrate 11 or the base-rib 12, respectively. For example, the lateral-gaps G_(L) can be solid-material-free from the distal-end D_(i) to the proximal-end P_(i), and beyond the proximal-end P_(i) for a distance of at least 10% of the thickness Th_(i) of at least one of the wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i).

There can be a center-gap G_(C) between the two wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i). As shown in FIGS. 10, 13, and 16, part of each center-gap G_(C) can be a center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) and the remainder can be the support-rib 22. For example, the center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) can extend from the distal-end D_(i) towards the proximal-end P_(i), of a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) adjacent to the center-gap G_(C), for a distance of at least 25% in one aspect, at least 50% in another aspect, at least 80% in another aspect, at least 90% in another aspect, or between 70% and 98% in another aspect of a thickness Th, of a wire of the inner-pair 13 _(i).

As shown in FIGS. 11, 12, 14, 15, and 17, the center-gaps G_(C) can be entirely solid-material-free. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 14, the center-solid material-free-regions R_(C) can terminate at the proximal-end P. As shown in FIGS. 12, 15, & 17 the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) can extend beyond the proximal-end P into the substrate 11 (FIG. 12) or the base-rib 12 (FIGS. 15 & 17). For example, the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C) can extend from the distal-end D_(i) to the proximal-end P_(i), and beyond the proximal-end P_(i) for a distance of at least 10% in one aspect or at least 25% in another aspect, of the thickness Th_(i) of at least one of the wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i).

As shown in FIG. 10, the spaces S can include an inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-region R_(I). As shown in FIGS. 11, the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-region R_(I) can extend from the distal-end D_(o) to the proximal-end P_(o) of at least one of the wires 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o) that adjoins the space S. As shown in FIGS. 12-17, the spaces S can be solid-material-free from the distal-end D to the proximal-end P, and beyond the proximal-end P for a distance of at least 5% in one aspect, at least 15% in another aspect, at least 25% in another aspect, of the thickness Th_(o) of at least one of the wires 13 of an outer-pair 13 _(o) that adjoins the space S.

A width w_(L) of the lateral-gaps G_(L), a width w_(C) of the center-gap G_(C), and a width w_(S) the space S are shown in FIGS. 10 and 15. These widths W_(L), w_(C), and w_(S) can all be the same, two of them can be the same, or they can all be different from one another. For example, the width w_(L) of the lateral-gaps G_(L), the width w_(C) of the center-gap G_(C), and the width Ws the space S can all differ from one another by at least 3 nanometers in one aspect, at least 5 nanometers in another aspect, at least 10 nanometers in another aspect. As another example, a largest of these widths (w_(L), w_(C), and w_(S)) can differ from a smallest of these widths (w_(L), w_(C), and w_(S)) by at least 25% in one aspect, at least 50% in another aspect, or at least 75% in another aspect. Thus, if the width w_(L) of the lateral-gaps G_(L) is the smallest and the width w_(C) of the center-gap G_(C) is the largest, then w_(C)−w_(L)>0.25*w_(L), w_(C)−w_(L)>0.50*w_(L), or w_(C)−w_(L)>0.25*w_(L). As another example, the width w_(L). of each lateral-gap G_(L) can be smaller than the width w_(C) of each center-gap G_(C) and smaller than the width w_(S) of each space S (w_(L)<w_(C) and w_(L)<w_(S)).

A size of, and a relation among, these widths W_(L), w_(C), and w_(S), can be based on a pitch P₂₂ of the support ribs (see FIG. 2), a width w₂₂ of the support ribs (see FIG. 2), and a thickness of each layer (e.g. L₁, L₂, and L₃). The size of, and a relation among, these widths w_(L), w_(C), and w_(S), can be changed to optimize each particular WGP design. Allowing the possibility of these widths w_(L), w_(C), and w_(S) being different gives the WGP designer an added degree of freedom for improving designs. As shown in FIGS. 10, 13, and 16, there can be a support-rib 22 in the center-gap G_(C), between the two wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i). The support-rib 22 can extend substantially orthogonal to a planar-surface of the substrate on which the wires 13 are located. The support-rib 22 can provide structural support for these wires 13 _(i). This can be especially important if the inner-pair 13 _(i) wire width w_(i) is small and/or aspect ratio is high. The support-rib 22, however, can decrease WGP performance. Thus, each design can be evaluated to determine whether improved performance or increased inner-pair 13, stability is more important. For example, the support-rib 22 can extend between 5% and 75% in one aspect or between 5% and 25% in another aspect of a distance from the proximal-end P_(i) towards the distal-end D_(i) of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair 13 _(i).

As shown in FIGS. 10, 13, 16, and 17, the plurality of parallel, elongated wires 13 can also include a middle-pair 13 _(m). Wires of the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be laterally oriented with respect to one another, to the inner-pair 13 _(i), and to the outer-pair 13 _(o). Each wire of the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be located between a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and a wire 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o). Each wire of the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be separated from the other wire 13 of the middle-pair 13 _(m) by wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and by the center-gap G_(C). Similar to the support-rib 22, the middle-pair 13 _(m) can provide structural support for the inner-pair 13 _(i) and to the outer-pair 13 _(o), but the middle-pair 13 _(m) can adversely affect WGP performance. Thus, each design can be evaluated to determine whether improved performance or increased wire 13 stability is more important. For example, the middle-pair 13 _(m) can extend between 5% and 75% in one aspect or between 5% and 25% in another aspect of a distance from the proximal-end P_(i) towards the distal-end D_(i) of at least one of the wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i), adjacent to the middle-pair 13 _(m).

Wires 13 of WGP 100 might be the most stable due to the support-rib 22 in the center-gaps G_(C), the middle-pair 13 _(m) in the lateral-gaps G_(L), and the solid material 91 in the spaces S. Disadvantages of this design include an added manufacturing step (FIG. 9) and possibly reduced performance. These factors can be weighed in each WGP design.

As shown in FIGS. 16-17, the center-solid-material-free-region R_(C) and the lateral-solid-material-free-region R_(L) can extend for different distances from the distal-end D_(i) towards (and possibly beyond) the proximal-end P_(i), of a wire 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i).

As shown in FIGS. 12, 15, and 21, each of the nanostructures 14 can further include an array of parallel, elongated rods 122, including a rod 122 associated with each wire 13. Each rod 122 can be located between the substrate 11 and the wire 13 it is associated with. Each rod 122 can have a width w_(R) that is within +/−25% of a width (see w_(o) or w_(i) in FIG. 12) of the wire 13 it is associated with, (e.g. w_(o)−0.25*w_(o)<w_(R)<w_(o)+0.25*w_(o)). Sidewalk of each rod 122 can be aligned with sidewalls of each associated wire 13. The rods 122 can be separated from each other by the lateral-solid-material-free-regions R_(L), the center-solid-material-free-regions R_(C), and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions R_(I). WGPs with these rods 122 can have improved performance, especially at lower wavelengths, but the wires 13 in such WGPs can have reduced structural strength. These factors can be weighed in each WGP design.

By using a different material for the first-layer L₁ than is used for the third-layer L₃ (see FIG. 3 plus FIG. 7 or 18 and accompanying description above), a chemical composition of the inner-pair 13 _(i) can be different from a chemical composition of the outer-pair 13 _(o). Also, a different material can be used for the second-layer L₂ than is used for the first-layer L₁ and/or the third-layer L₃ (see FIG. 5 and accompanying description above), and thus a chemical composition of the middle-pair 13 _(m) can be different from a chemical composition of the inner-pair 13 _(i) and/or the outer-pair 13 _(o).

Having different wires 13 made of different materials for can be useful for broadening the useful wavelength range or adding additional functionality to the WGP. At least one of the following can be reflective and at least one of the following can be absorptive: the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and the outer-pair 13 _(o). At least one of the following can be transparent: the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and the outer-pair 13 _(o).

Wire Grid Polarizer of FIGS. 20-21

WGPs 200 and 210 of FIGS. 20-21 can be made by applying the second-layer L₂ then the third-layer L₃ without an intermediate etch, as is shown in FIG. 18. As a result, a thickness Th_(i) of wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) can be greater than a thickness Th_(o) of wires 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o). This structure can be useful for improving WGP performance. Other than this difference in thickness (Th_(o) compared to Th_(i)), WGPs 200 and 210 can be similar to WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170 described above. Thus, the above description of WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170 applies to WGPs 200 and 210.

Wire Grid Polarizer of FIGS. 23-24

WGPs 230 and 240 of FIGS. 23-24 can be made by etching into the substrate 11 after etching horizontal segments H of the first-layer L₁, as shown in FIG. 22. The process can then continue from FIG. 5 onward. As a result of etching into the substrate 11 after etching horizontal segments H of the first-layer L₁, a thickness Th_(i) of wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i) can be less than a thickness Th_(o) of wires 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o). This structure can be useful for improving WGP performance. Other than this difference in thickness (Th_(o) compared to Th_(i)), WGPs 230 and 240 can be similar to WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170 described above. Thus, the above description of WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, and 170 applies to WGPs 200 and 210.

Wire Grid Polarizer of FIG. 29

As shown in FIG. 29, the wires 13 of WGP 290 also include a second-outer-pair 13 _(o2). Each wire 13 of the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can be laterally oriented with respect to one another, to the inner-pair 13 _(i), and to the outer-pair 13 _(o). The second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can sandwich the inner-pair 13 _(i) and the outer-pair 13 _(o). Each wire 13 of the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can be separated from the other wire 13 of the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) by wires 13 of the outer-pair 13 _(o), wires 13 of the inner-pair 13 _(i), and the center-gap G_(C).

Other than the additional second-outer-pair 13 _(o2), WGP 290 is similar to WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 200, 210, 230, and 240 described above. Thus, the above description of WGPs 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 200, 210, 230, and 240 applies to WGP 290.

The fifth-layer L₅ and the sixth-layer L₅ can be made of different materials from each other and from one or more of the first-layer L₁, the second-layer L₂, and the third-layer L₃. The second-middle-pair 13 _(m2) (see FIG. 28) and/or the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2) can have a different chemical composition from each other and from one or more of the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), and the outer-pair 13 _(o).

At least one of the following can be reflective, at least one of the following can be absorptive, and at least one of the following can be transparent: the inner-pair 13 _(i), the middle-pair 13 _(m), the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2), the outer-pair 13 _(o), and the second-outer-pair 13 _(o2). In one aspect, the middle-pair 13 _(m) and the second-middle-pair 13 _(m2) can be transparent. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A wire grid polarizer (WGP) comprising: a. an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures located over a surface of a transparent substrate, each of the nanostructures including: i. an elongated base-rib located over the substrate and having a distal-surface located away from the substrate; ii. a plurality of parallel, elongated wires located on the distal-surface of the base-rib, including an inner-pair located between an outer-pair, wherein the wires are laterally oriented and spaced apart with respect to one another and each wire has a proximal-end closer to the substrate and a distal-end farther from the substrate and a thickness defined as a distance from the proximal-end to the distal-end; iii. lateral-gaps between each wire of the outer-pair and an adjacent wire of the inner-pair, wherein each lateral-gap includes a lateral-solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of at least 25% of the thickness of a wire of the inner-pair, adjacent to the lateral-gap; and iv. a center-gap between the wires of the inner-pair, wherein the center-gap includes a center-solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of at least 25% of the thickness of one of the wires of the inner-pair; and b. a plurality of spaces, including a space between adjacent nanostructures, wherein each space includes an inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end to the proximal-end, and beyond the proximal-end for a distance of at least 25% of the thickness of at least one of the wires of the outer-pair that adjoins the space.
 2. The WGP of claim 1, wherein: a. each of the nanostructures further includes an array of parallel, elongated rods, including a rod associated with each wire; b. each rod is located between the substrate and the wire it is associated with; and c. the rods are separated from each other by the lateral-solid-material-free-regions, the center-solid-material-free-regions, and the inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-regions.
 3. The WGP of claim 1, wherein: a. the lateral-solid-material-free-region extends from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of between 70% and 98% of the thickness of a wire of the inner-pair, adjacent to the lateral-gap; and b. the center-solid-material-free-region extends from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of between 70% and 98% of the thickness of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair.
 4. The WGP of claim 1, wherein the center-solid-material-free-region extends from the distal-end to the proximal-end, and beyond the proximal-end for a distance of at least 10% of the thickness of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair.
 5. The WGP of claim 1, further comprising a support-rib between the two wires of the inner-pair, wherein the support-rib extends between 5% and 75% of a distance from the proximal-end towards the distal-end of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair.
 6. The WGP of claim 1, wherein: a. the plurality of parallel, elongated wires also include a middle-pair; b. the wires of each middle-pair are laterally oriented with respect to one another, to the inner-pair, and to the outer-pair; c. each wire of the middle-pair i. is located between a wire of the inner-pair and a wire of the outer-pair; ii. is separated from the other wire of the middle-pair by wires of the inner-pair and by the center-gap; and iii. extends between 5% and 75% of a distance from the proximal-end towards the distal-end of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair, adjacent to the middle-pair.
 7. The WGP of claim 6, wherein at least one of the following is reflective and at least one of the following is absorptive: the inner-pair, the middle-pair, and the outer-pair.
 8. The WGP of claim 1, wherein a chemical composition of the inner-pair is different from a chemical composition of the outer-pair,
 9. The WGP of claim 1, wherein widths of the lateral-gaps, the center-gap, and the space all differ from one another
 10. The WGP of claim 1, wherein: a. the plurality of parallel, elongated wires also include a second-outer-pair; b. wires of the second-outer-pair are laterally oriented with respect to one another, to the inner-pair, and to the outer-pair; c. wires of the second-outer-pair are located to sandwich the inner-pair and the outer-pair; and d. each wire of the second-outer-pair is separated from the other wire of the second-outer-pair by wires of the outer-pair, wires of the inner-pair, and the center-gap.
 11. A wire grid polarizer (WGP) comprising: a. an array of parallel, elongated nanostructures located over a surface of a transparent substrate, each of the nanostructures including: i. a plurality of parallel, elongated wires located on the substrate, including an inner-pair located between an outer-pair, wherein the wires are laterally oriented and spaced apart with respect to one another and each wire has a proximal-end closer to the substrate and a distal-end farther from the substrate and a thickness defined as a distance from the proximal-end to the distal-end; ii. lateral-gaps between each wire of the outer-pair and an adjacent wire of the inner-pair, wherein each lateral-gap includes a lateral-solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of at least 25% of the thickness of a wire of at least one of the inner-pair, adjacent to the lateral-gap; and iii. a center-gap between the wires of the inner-pair, wherein the center-gap includes a center-solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of at least 25% of the thickness of at least one of the wires of the inner-pair; b. a plurality of spaces, including a space between adjacent nanostructures, wherein each space includes an inter-nanostructure solid-material-free-region extending from the distal-end towards the proximal-end for a distance of at least at least 25% of the thickness of at least one of the wires of the outer-pair that adjoins the space; and c. widths of the lateral-gaps, the center-gap, and the space all being different from one another.
 12. The WGP of claim 11, wherein widths of the lateral-gaps, the center-gap, and the space all differ from one another by at least 5 nanometers.
 13. The WGP of claim 11, wherein a largest width of the lateral-gaps, the center-gap, and the space differ from a smallest width of the lateral-gaps, the center-gap, and the space by at least 50% of the smallest width.
 14. The WGP of claim 11, wherein widths of the lateral-gaps are smaller than the width of the center-gap and smaller than the width of the space.
 15. A method of making a wire grid polarizer (VVGP), the method comprising the following steps in order: a. providing an array of parallel, elongated support ribs located over a transparent substrate and spaces between the support ribs, the spaces being solid-material-free; b. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a first-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs, c. etching the first-layer to remove horizontal segments and leaving an array of inner-pairs of parallel, elongated wires along sides of the support ribs, each wire of each inner-pair being separate from the other wire of the inner-pair; d. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a second-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs; e. conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with a third-layer while maintaining solid-material-free at least a portion of the spaces between the support ribs; f. etching the third-layer to remove horizontal segments and leaving outer-pairs, wherein: i. the outer-pairs are an array of parallel, elongated wires along sides of the support ribs; ii. each wire of each outer-pair is spaced apart with respect to the other wire of the outer-pair; and ill. wires of each outer-pair are spaced apart with respect to wires of the inner-pair by wires of a middle-pair, the wires of the middle-pair being formed of material of the second-layer; and g. etching the support ribs and the middle-pair to form: i. lateral-solid-material-free-regions between at least a portion of each wire of each outer-pair and at least a portion of an adjacent wire of the inner-pair; and ii. center-solid-material-free-regions between at least a portion of the two wires of each inner-pair.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein etching the first-layer includes etching into the substrate between inner-pairs and adjacent inner-pairs.
 17. The method of claim 15, further comprising the following after conformal coating the substrate and the support ribs with the second-layer: etching the second-layer to remove horizontal segments and leaving middle-pairs, the middle-pairs being an array of parallel, elongated wires, each wire of each middle-pair being separated from the other wire of the middle-pair by wires of the inner-pair.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein etching the support ribs includes removing the support ribs and forming the center-solid-material-free-region from a distal-end of the inner-pair to a proximal-end of the inner-pair.
 19. The method of claim 15, further comprising etching the substrate between adjacent nanostructures, to form an array of parallel elongated base-ribs, an inner-pair and an outer-pair located on each base-rib.
 20. The method of claim 15, wherein the first-layer is reflective or absorptive, the third-layer is reflective or absorptive, and the second-layer is transparent. 